Social Science Research on Pornography

Related Research

The purpose of this section to provide links to past research that has examined issues related to pornography use, effects of pornography, and attitudes towards pornography. While there is a broad body of literature based on experimental settings, all of the studies here use survey data or natural setting data (crime statistics, circulation rates, etc).
Our real hope is to be able to post the data, analysis code, and survey questions used for each study. This will allow future research to replicate and extend these past studies, providing a scientific forum in which the effects of pornography can be better discussed. If you are the author of one of these studies or a related study, please contact us (ssrp@byu.edu) about the possibility of posting your data on this site.

Pornography Use

• Buzzell, T. (2005). Demographic characteristics of persons using pornography in three technological contexts. Sexuality & Culture. 9, 28-48.

  Significant attention is being given to the impact of the Internet on forms of "cybersex". Few studies of cybersex have provided cross-sectional analysis of pornography use. Moreover, no analysis has contrasted pornography on the Internet with other technological forms. This is problematic when attempting to evaluate the impact technology has had on pornography use. In an attempt to address the question posed by Stern and Handel (2001), "does technology matter?" to pornography use, this study reports descriptive findings from the General Social Survey since 1973. Specifically, three technological contexts were operationalized from items in the GSS to describe pornography use and the demographic characteristics of persons who use pornography in three technologies: film, theater or VCR, or websites. A greater proportion of people, who reported use of pornography were males, young persons, and persons who lived in urban areas. Variations in other demographic characteristics such as employment status and income, however, suggested that technology does make a difference in pornography access and, thus, use.

• Buzzell, T. (2005). The effects of sophistication, access, and monitoring on use of pornography in three technological contexts. Deviant Behavior. 26, 109-132.

  Technology has changed the varieties and means of distribution of pornography. The emergence of "hyperpornography" on the Internet is the most notable example. Yet, little attention has been given to understanding what factors contribute to pornography use. Using data from the General Social Survey in 1973, 1994, and 2000–2002, this study tests the effects of sophistication, accessibility, and monitoring by others on the likelihood of using pornography in three technological contexts: film in theaters, film in theaters or VCRs, and websites. The results indicate that sex and age are important predictors of the likelihood of pornography use, regardless of technological context. Sophistication, accessibility, and monitoring also are significant, but this differs by technological context. Results are discussed in light of how pornography use can be explained by what Wilcox, Land, and Hunt, (2003) call dynamic multi-contextual opportunities for deviance.

• Carroll, Jason; Laura Padilla-Walker, Larry Nelson, Chad Olson, Carolyn McNamara Barry, and Stephanie Madsen (2008). Generation XXX: Pornography Acceptance and Use Among Emerging Adults. Journal of Adolescent Research. 23; 6.

  This study examines correlates of pornography acceptance and use within a normative (nonclinical) population of emerging adults (individuals aged 18–26). Participants included 813 university students (500 women; M age=20 years) recruited from six college sites across the United States. Participants completed online questionnaires regarding their acceptance and use of pornography, as well as their sexual values and activity, substance use, and family formation values. Results revealed that roughly two thirds (67%) of young men and one half (49%) of young women agree that viewing pornography is acceptable, whereas nearly 9 out of 10 (87%) young men and nearly one third (31%) of young women reported using pornography. Results also revealed associations between pornography acceptance and use and emerging adults' risky sexual attitudes and behaviors, substance use patterns, and nonmarital cohabitation values. The discussion considers the implications of pornography use during the transition to adulthood.

• Cooper, A., Delmonico, D.L., Griffin-Shelly, E., & Mathy, R. M. (2004). Online sexual activity: An examination of potentially problematic behaviors. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity. 11, 129-143.

  This article focused on a selected random sample of over 7,000 individuals who responded to a survey regarding online sexual activity. Results helped identify potential problem areas for online sexual compulsives and at-risk users. These results provided descriptions of activities that could lead to problematic behavior in three areas: obsession, compulsion, and consequences. In addition, specific results were highlighted by gender differences, and types of cybersex users. As a descriptive article, the results of this study help us understand who online sexual activity users are and how they might experience problems related to their behaviors.

• Gunther, Albert (1995). Overrating the X-Rating: The Third-Person Perception and Support for Censorship of Pornography. Journal of Communication. 45(1), 27-38.

  Research has produced plentiful evidence of the third-person perception—the tendency for people to think others are more influenced by mass media than they are themselves. But until now there has been scant evidence of the effects of that perceptual bias. Consistent with past third-person effect findings, the data in this study indicate that a substantial majority of U.S. adults see others as more adversely influenced by pornography than themselves. In addition, the results show that peoples' support for pornography restrictions parallels the discrepancy they perceive between effect on self and effect on others.

• Johnson, Timothy P., and Moore, Robert W. (1993) Gender Interactions Between Interviewer and Survey Respondents: Issues of Pornography and Community Standards. Sex Roles. 28(5/6); 243-261.

  Several sociological perspectives, including social distance and social acquiescence theories, suggest that survey responses to threatening or sensitive questions may be influenced by interviewer gender. Most of the empirical work bearing on this issue has been conducted using face—to—face interviews. Research presented here examines interviewer gender effects in a telephone survey concerned with a sexually sensitive topic — the sale and consumption of pornographic materials. Subjects were mostly white middle-class adults living in a medium—sized metropolitan community. Approximately equal numbers of males (n=230) and females (n=219) were interviewed. Findings suggest that, although a weak trend indicative of an acquiescence effect was observed, interviewer gender effects may not in general be a serious source of nonsampling errors in telephone surveys.

• Mitchell, Kimberly J.; Finkelhor, David; and Wolak, Janis (2003) The Exposure of Youth to Unwanted Sexual Material on the Intenet: A National Survey of Risk, Impact, and Prevention. Youth Society. 34(3); 330-358.

  This national survey of youth, ages 10 to 17, and their caretakers has several implications for the current debate about young people and Internet pornography. Twenty five percent of youth had unwanted exposure to sexual pictures on the Internet in the past year, challenging the prevalent assumption that the problem is primarily about young people motivated to actively seek out pornography. Most youth had no negative reactions to their unwanted exposure, but one quarter said they were very or extremely upset, suggesting a priority need for more research on and interventions directed toward such negative effects. The use of filtering and blocking software was associated with a modest reduction in unwanted exposure, suggesting that it may help but is far from fool proof. Various forms of parental supervision were not associated with any reduction in exposure. The authors urge that social scientific research be undertaken to inform this highly contentious public policy controversy.

• Peter, Jochen Peter, and Valkenburg, Patti M. (2006) Adolescents' Exposure to Sexually Explicit Material on the Internet. Communication Research. 33; 178-204.

  Drawing on a survey of 745 Dutch adolescents ages 13 to 18, the authors investigated (a) the occurrence and frequency of adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet and (b) the correlates of this exposure. Seventy-one percent of the male adolescents and 40% of the female adolescents had been exposed to some kind of online sexually explicit material in the 6 months prior to the interview. Adolescents were more likely to be exposed to sexually explicit material online if they were male, were high sensation seekers, were less satisfied with their lives, were more sexually interested, used sexual content in other media more often, had a fast Internet connection, and had friends that were predominantly younger. Among male adolescents, a more advanced pubertal status was also associated with more frequent exposure to online sexually explicit material. Among female adolescents, greater sexual experience decreased exposure to online sexually explicit material.

• Shim, Jae Woongs; Lee, Seungwhan; and Paul Bryant (2007) Who Responds to Unsolicited Sexually Explicit Materials on the Internet?: The Role of Individual Differences. CyberPsychology and Behavior. 10, 71-79.

  Many studies on the effects of sexually explicit materials have focused primarily on intentional exposure to such content. Recently, researchers have begun to address the issue of the unintentional exposure to pornography on the Internet. However, there is no research on the effects of individual differences on Internet users' responses to unsolicited sexually explicit materials. This study used the Sexual Opinion Survey scale and the Self-Report Psychopathy scale (SRP-III) to measure college students' sexual and antisocial dispositions. It found that samples of those high in sexual disposition were more likely to expose themselves, by clicking a message or link, to unsolicited Internet pornography when they happened to come across it while online. Further, those high in antisocial disposition were more likely to click images or links than those low in antisocial disposition. Finally, those who were high both in sexual and antisocial dispositions reported being more likely to expose themselves to unsolicited sexually explicit materials than all others.

• Stack, S., Wasserman, I., & Kern, R. (2004). Adult social bonds and use of Internet pornography. Social Science Quarterly. 85(1), 75–88.

  Sociological theories of deviant behavior have not been systematically applied to the problem of who uses and who does not use cyberpornography on the Internet. The present study contributes to the literature by providing the first systematic application of selected sociological theories of deviance to the problem of explaining use of cyberpornography. It tests a blended theoretical perspective, which includes measures from social control and opportunity theories of deviance, as well as measures of broader deviant lifestyles, as possible predictors of use of cyberporn.

  A key hypothesis is that persons with the strongest ties to conventional society will be less likely than others to use cyberporn. Complete data on 531 Internet users are taken from the General Social Surveys for 2000. Social bonds measures include religious, marital, and political ties. Measures of participation in sexual and drug-related deviant lifestyles, and demographic controls are included. The results of a logistic regression analysis found that among the strongest predictors of use of cyberporn were weak ties to religion and lack of a happy marriage. However, past sexual deviance (e.g., involvement in paid sex) was also a strong predictor of cyberporn use. Overall the model explained 40 percent of the variance in porn use on the Internet. Traditional theoretical perspectives on deviance are apparently applicable to this new form of deviant behavior.

• Wolak, Janis; Mitchell, Kimberly; and Finkelhor, David (2007) Unwanted and Wanted Exposure to Online Pornography in a National Sample of Youth Internet Users. Pediatrics 119; 247-257.

  The goal was to assess the extent of unwanted and wanted exposure to online pornography among youth Internet users and associated risk factors. A telephone survey of a nationally representative sample of 1500 youth Internet users aged 10 to 17 years was conducted between March and June 2005. Forty—two percent of youth Internet users had been exposed to online pornography in the past year. Of those, 66% reported only unwanted exposure. Multinomial logistic regression analysis was used to compare youth with unwantedexposure only or any wanted exposure with those with no exposure.

  Unwanted exposure was related to only 1 Internet activity, namely, using filesharing programs to download images. Filtering and blocking software reduced the risk of unwanted exposure, as did attending an Internet safety presentation by law enforcement personnel. Unwanted exposure rates were higher for teens, youth who reported being harassed or sexually solicited online or interpersonally victimized offline, and youth who scored in the borderline or clinically significant range on the Child Behavior Checklist subscale for depression. Wanted exposure rates were higher for teens, boys, and youth who used file-sharing programs to download images, talked online to unknown persons about sex, used the Internet at friends' homes, or scored in the borderline or clinically significant range on the Child Behavior Checklist subscale for rule—breaking. Depression also could be a risk factor for some youth. Youth who used filtering and blocking software had lower odds of wanted exposure.

  More research concerning the potential impact of Internet pornography on youth is warranted, given the high rate of exposure, the fact that much exposure is unwanted, and the fact that youth with certain vulnerabilities, such as depression, interpersonal victimization, and delinquent tendencies, have more exposure.

• Ybarra, Michele L. and Mitchell, Kimberly J. (2005) Exposure to Internet Pornography among Children and Adolescents: A National Survey. CyberPsychology and Behavior 8(5); 473-486.

  Estimates suggest that up to 90% or more youth between 12 and 18 years have access to the Internet. Concern has been raised that this increased accessibility may lead to a rise in pornography seeking among children and adolescents, with potentially serious ramifications for child and adolescent sexual development. Using data from the Youth Internet Safety Survey, a nationally representative, cross—sectional telephone survey of 1501 children and adolescents (ages 10—17 years), characteristics associated with self-reported pornography seeking behavior, both on the Internet and using traditional methods (e.g., magazines), are identified. Seekers of pornography, both online and offline, are significantly more likely to be male, with only 5% of self-identified seekers being female. The vast majority (87%) of youth who report looking for sexual images online are 14 years of age or older, when it is developmentally appropriate to be sexually curious. Children under the age of 14 who have intentionally looked at pornography are more likely to report traditional exposures, such as magazines or movies. Concerns about a large group of young children exposing themselves to pornography on the Internet may be overstated. Those who report intentional exposure to pornography, irrespective of source, are significantly more likely to cross-sectionally report delinquent behavior and substance use in the previous year. Further, online seekers versus offline seekers are more likely to report clinical features associated with depression and lower levels of emotional bonding with their caregiver. Results of the current investigation raise important questions for further inquiry. Findings from these cross-sectional data provide justification for longitudinal studies aimed at parsing out temporal sequencing of psychosocial experiences.

Effects of Pornography

• Baron, Larry (1990). Pornography and Gender Equality: An Empirical Analysis. The Journal of Sex Research. 27, 363-380.

  This paper examines the relationship between the circulation rates of soft-core pornographic magazines and gender equality in the 50 American states. Gender equality is measured with the Gender Equality Index (GEX) which combines 24 indicators of the status of women relative to men in the three institutional domains of politics, economics, and legal rights. Multiple regression analysis is used to test the hypothesis that the higher the circulation rate of soft-core pornographic magazines, the lower the level of gender equality. Several additional variables are included in the analysis to control for spurious relationships. Contrary to the hypothesis, the results show that gender equality is higher in states characterized by higher circulation rates of pornography. This relationship is interpreted as suggesting that pornography and gender equality both flourish in politically tolerant societies.

• Corne, Shawn; Briere, John; and Esses, Lillian (1992). Women's Attitudes and Fantasies about Rape as a Function of Early Exposure to Pornography. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 7, 454-461.

  Although much has been learned about how social forces such as pornography can shape or direct men's sexual violence against women, few empirical data exist on how these forces impinge on women's attitudes and behavior. In the present study, 187 female university students responded to a questionnaire regarding childhood exposure to pornography, current sexual fantasies, and endorsement of rape-supportive attitudes. Early exposure to pornography was related to subsequent "rape fantasies" and attitudes supportive of sexual violence against women. Findings were interpreted in the context of women's socialization to accept sexual aggression as a sexual/romantic event.

• Demare, D.; Briere, J; and Lips, H. (1988). Violent pornography and self-reported likelihood of sexual aggression. Journal of Research in Personality. 22, 140-153.

  222 undergraduate males were administered an attitudes survey examining pornography use, attitudes, and self-reported likelihood of rape or using sexual force. Nonviolent pornography was used by 81% of subjects within the previous year. Discriminant function analysis revealed that use of sexually violent pornography and acceptance of interpersonal violence against women were uniquely associated with likelihood of rape or using sexual force. It is hypothesized that the specific fusion of sex and violence in some pornographic stimuli and in certain belief systems may produce a propensity to engage in sexually aggressive behavior.

• Demare, D.; Briere, J; and Lips, H. (1993). Sexually violent pornography, anti-women attitudes, and sexual aggression: a structural equation model. Journal of Research in Personality. 27, 285-300.

  Using data provided by 383 male university students, several structural equation models were developed and tested to asses the interrelationship of pornography use, anti-women attitudes, and propensity for sexual violence. The model best fitting the data is one in which use of Sexually Violent Pornography and Anti–Women Attitudes are exogenous latent variables predicting self–reported Likelihood of Rape and Likelihood of using Sexual Force, as well as self–reported history of having achieved sexual intercourse by use of Coercion and Force. A variation of this model that includes use of Nonviolent Pornography as an exogenous variable was also tested. Use of nonviolent pornography was not uniquely associated with potential or actual sexual aggression. The findings suggest the potential roles of both attitudes and sexually violent pornography in the occurrence of sexual aggression.

• Garcia, Luis (1986). Exposure to Pornography and Attitudes about Women and Rape: A Correlational Study. The Jornal of Sex Research. 22, 278-285.

  Investigated the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit material and attitudes toward rape in 115 male undergraduates. Data provide mixed support for the hypothesis that exposure to pornographic material would be correlated with less liberal attitudes toward women: Only exposure to coercive or violent sexual themes was related to more traditional attitudes about women. Contrary to predictions, subjects having greater exposure to sexual materials were found to express more liberal attitudes toward women in the area of sexual behavior.

• Gentry, Cynthia (1991). Pornography and rape: An empirical analysis. Deviant Behavior. 12, 277-288.

  Tests a model that hypothesizes a causal relation between pornography and rape through an analysis of data taken from the Uniform Crime Reports and circulation data from 3 sexually oriented magazines. Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas were used as units of analysis. The pornography model was not supported. Population size, the proportion of young adults, the percentage divorced, and population change were all significant predictors of rape.

• Kendall, Todd. (2006). Pornography, Rape, and the Internet. Clemson University, Working Paper.

  The arrival of the internet caused a large decline in both the pecuniary and non-pecuniary costs of accessing pornography. Using state-level panel data from 1998-2003, I find that the arrival of the internet was associated with a reduction in rape incidence. However, growth in internet usage had no apparent effect on other crimes. Moreover, when I disaggregate the rape data by offender age, I find that the effect of the internet on rape is concentrated among those for whom the internet-induced fall in the non-pecuniary price of pornography was the largest — men ages 15—19, who typically live with their parents. These results, which suggest that pornography and rape are substitutes, are in contrast with most previous literature. However, earlier population—level studies do not control adequately for many omitted variables, including the age distribution of the population, and most laboratory studies simply do not allow for potential substitutability between pornography and rape.

• Kimmel, M.S.; Linders, A. (1996). Does Censorship Make a Difference? An Aggregate Empirical Analysis of Pornography and Rape. Journal of Psychology and Human Sexuality.

  The question of pornography and the relation of pornography consumption and sexual violence has been hotly debated. Following a critical review of previous literature, this article examines the relationship between pornography and sexual violence by developing an aggregate statistical analysis of pornography consumption and rape rates in six cities, matched on various SES (SocioEconomic Status) variables. The article tests the converse of ideological assertion argument that increased pornography consumption leads to increased rates of rape. Results reported here show a steady decline in consumption of printed pornography and a steady rise in rape rate. The article concludes that aggregate statistical data do not confirm hypotheses that decreased pornography consumption leads to a decrease in rape rates.

• Kingston, Drew; Fedoroff, Paul; Firestone, Phillip; Curry, Susan; and Bradford, John (2008). Pornography use and sexual aggression: the impact of frequency and type of pornography use on recidivism among sexual offenders. Agressive Behavior. 34, 341-351.

  In this study, we examined the unique contribution of pornography consumption to the longitudinal prediction of criminal recidivism in a sample of 341 child molesters. We specifically tested the hypothesis, based on predictions informed by the confluence model of sexual aggression that pornography will be a risk factor for recidivism only for those individuals classified as relatively high risk for re-offending. Pornography use (frequency and type) was assessed through self-report and recidivism was measured using data from a national database from the Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Indices of recidivism, which were assessed up to 15 years after release, included an overall criminal recidivism index, as well as subcategories focusing on violent (including sexual) recidivism and sexual recidivism alone. Results for both frequency and type of pornography use were generally consistent with our predictions. Most importantly, after controlling for general and specific risk factors for sexual aggression, pornggraphy added significantly to the prediction of recidivism. Statistical interactions indicated that frequency of pornography use was primarily a risk factor for higher-risk offenders, when compared with lower-risk offenders, and that content of pornography (i.e., pornography containing deviant content) was a risk factor for all groups. The importance of conceptualizing particular risk factors (e.g., pornography), within the context of other individual characteristics is discussed.

• Kutchinsky, Berl (1991). Pornography and Rape: Theory and Practice? Evidence from Crime Data in Four Countries where Pornography is Easily Available. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 26, 47-64.

  Uses data on the incidence of rape in 4 societies (Denmark, Sweden, Germany, and the US) where pornography is widely available. Aggregate data on rape and other violent or sexual offenses in these 4 countries does not seem to have any detrimental effects in the form of increased sexual violence.

• Häggström-Nordin, E.; Hanson, U.; and Tydén, T. (2005). Associations between pornography consumption and sexual practices among adolescents in Sweden. International Journal of STD and AIDS. 16, 102-107.

  Pornography consumption and sexual behaviour were studied, with an aim to investigate any associations. Participants were 718 students from 47 high school classes, mean age 18 years, in a medium-sized Swedish city. More men (98%) than women (72%) had ever consumed pornography. More male high consumers than low consumers or women got sexually aroused by, fantasized about, or tried to perform acts seen in a pornographic film. Intercourse with a friend was significantly associated with high consumption of pornography among men, while anal intercourse and group sex tended to be associated. A significant confounder was early age of sexual debut. New Studies to Add to related research, under possible outcomes.

• Jochen, Peter; Valkenburg, Patti (2006). Adolescents' Exposure to Sexually Explicit Online Material and Recreational Attitudes Toward Sex. Journal of Communication. 56 (4), 639-660.

  Previous research has largely ignored the implications of adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit online material for their sexual attitude formation. To study whether adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit material on the Internet is related to recreational attitudes toward sex, we conducted an online survey among 471 Dutch adolescents aged 13–18. Male adolescents used sexually explicit online material more than female adolescents, which led to a greater perceived realism of such material. Perceived realism, in turn, mediated the relationship between exposure to sexually explicit online material and recreational attitudes toward sex . Exposure to sexually explicit online material, then, is related to more recreational attitudes toward sex, but this relationship is influenced by adolescents' gender and mediated by the extent to which they perceive online sexual material as realistic.

• Padgett, Vernon; Brislin-Slutz, Jo Ann; and Neal, James A. (1989). Pornography, Erotica, and Attitudes toward Women: The Effects of Repeated Exposure. The Journal of Sex Research . 26, 479-491.

  Participants included 184 psychology students and 20 patrons at an "adult" theater. Multiple linear regressions indicated that hours of viewing pornography was not a reliable predictor of attitudes toward women in either sample. Patrons of the adult theater, who viewed more pornography, had more favorable attitudes toward women than male or female college students.

• Pazzani, L.M. (2007). The Factors Affecting Sexual Assaults Committed by Strangers and Acquaintances. Violence Against Women. 13, 717-749.

  Research on the causes of sexual assault typically analyzes rape committed by acquaintances and strangers together, despite the fact that the characteristics of the assault in these two circumstances are very different. Thus, this work examines whether the causes of each type of sexual assault-stranger and acquaintance rape-differ. The results of the analyses reveal that variables that describe a culture of gender equality, prior child abuse, and prior sexual assaults are associated with acquaintance assaults. In contrast, a culture of "hypermasculinity" is associated with stranger rape. The implications of these findings are discussed.

• Scott, Joseph; Schwalm, Loretta (1988). Rape Rates and the Circulation Rates of Adult Magazines. The Journal of Sex Research. 24, 241-250.

  We found a statistically significant relationship between rape rates and adult magazine circulation rates by state. The relationship remains even when controlling for numerous other variables previously found to be related to rape. Moreover, this relationship does not appear to be simply an artifact of magazine readership inasmuch as two separate magazine circulation indices, outdoor and general, were introduced into the regression equation to control for magazine readership and neither significantly affected the relationship between rape rates and adult magazine circulation rates. In addition, when controlling for other violent crimes, the statistically significant relationship between rape rates and adult magazine circulation rates remains.

• Winick, Charles; Evans, John (2006). The relationship between nonenforcement of state pronography laws and rates of sex crime arrests. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 25, 439-453.

  The nonoperation of antipornography statutes in four states (Maine, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Washington) for varying periods between 1973 and 1986 provided an opportunity to examine the impact of such statutes and pornography availability on sex crimes, because nonenforcement is associated with an increase in the availability of sexually explicit materials. Arrests for property offenses and for rape, prostitution, and other sex offenses during the period before the suspension of the laws, when compared with the period during suspension, reflected no significant changes. Findings are consistent with other foreign and American studies that have failed to find a link between exposure to sexually explicit media materials and rates of reports of rape and other sex offenses.

• Wongsurawat, Winai. (2004) Pornography and Social Ills: Evidence from the Early 1990s. Journal of Applied Economics. 9 (1): 185-213

  Beginning from the hypotheses that private post office boxes accommodate consumption of pornographic magazines by lowering some aspects of the cost (risk of social stigmatization) associated with the purchasing of such items, I demonstrate that a positive correlation between the abundance of such boxes and the subscription rate to Penthouse magazine across markets in the United States can be observed. I then proceed to estimate the effect of pornography on violent sex crimes and family instability, with and without using P.O. Box availability as an instrumental variable. Results suggest that unobservable population characteristics severaly bias upward the estimated harmfulness of adult magazines. My OLS estimates imply, like several previous studies, that consumption of pornography contributes to both higher frequencies of rapes and divorces. When instrumental variables are employed, however, the correlation between rapes and pornography turns negative while the statistical significance of the coefficient for pornography on the rate of divorces disappears.

Attitudes toward Pornography

• Lo, Ven-hwei and Wei, Ran (2002) Third-Person Effect, Gender, and Pornography on the Internet. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 46:1, 13-33.

  This study examined the role of gender in the third-person effect in the context of Internet pornography. The results indicate that most respondents believe Internet pornography has a greater negative influence on others than on themselves. Female respondents tend to perceive greater negative effects of Internet pornography on other males than on other females, and they are readier to support restrictions on Internet pornography. Finally, the magnitude of perceptual bias appears an unreliable predictor of support for media restriction, which may help explain mixed results in previous studies. This novel gender-differential approach strengthens the growing literature on the third-person effect.

• Thompson, Margaret E.; Chaffee, Steven H.; and Oshagan, Hayg H. (1990) Regulating Pornography: A Public Dilemma. Journal of Communication 40(3); 73-83.

  In this article, we report findings from a small-scale public opinion survey about regulation of pornography, conducted in a community where feminist antipornograhic activism has recently been at least as prominent as the more usual thunder on the Right. We assumed that this issue is inherently problematic for many people because it does not break along conventional political or demographic lines. Liberals and conservatives alike tend to value First Amendment freedoms highly. At the same time, a traditional conservative would most likely disapprove of pornography (along with other forms of open sexual activity) as an affront to conventional, "family based" values, while the prevailing liberal view would focus more on pornography's detrimental effects on relationships between men and women and on its contribution to a "culture of violence" against women. The matter is thus fraught with the conflicting pressures of freedom and regulation, creating a large difference of opinions on the topic.

• Goodson, P., McCormick, D., & Evans, A. (2000). Sex and the Internet: A Survey Instrument to Assess College Students' Behavior and Attitudes. CyberPsychology and Behavior. 3(2): 129-149.

  Due to the paucity of empirical data on college students' perceptions and behavior when searching the Internet for sexuality-related information, the purpose of this article is to present the development, psychometric properties, and initial validation results of an instrument designed to measure these factors. The questionnaire, based on Social Cognitive Theory, contained three scales to measure attitudes of students toward use of the Internet for (a) obtaining sexuality-related information, (b) establishing personal connections, and (c) for sexual entertainment/arousal. Each of these three scales consisted of two subscales, measuring expectancies and expectations for the above functions. The subscales demonstrated a high degree of internal consistency (alphas ranging from .76 to .95) and appropriate temporal stability (rs = .69 to .78). A Principal Components analysis of the subscales yielded a factor structure of six factors, accounting for 68.8% of the total variance. Importance of the instrument for sexuality research as well as its limitations are also presented.

Review of Research

• Allen, M., D'Alessio, D., and Brezgel, K. (1995). A Meta-Analysis Summarizing the Effects of Pornography II Aggression After Exposure. Human Communication Research. 22 (2), 258-283.

  This meta-analytic review examines the effect that exposure to pornography produces on aggressive behavior under laboratory conditions considering a variety of possible moderating conditions (level of sexual arousal, level of prior anger, type of pornography, gender of subject, gender of the target of aggression, and medium used to convey the material). The summary demonstrates a homogeneous set of results showing that pictorial nudity reduces subsequent aggressive behavior, that consumption of material depicting nonviolent sexual activity increases aggressive behavior, and that media depictions of violent sexual activity generates more aggression than those of nonviolent sexual activity. No other moderator variable produced homogeneous findings. The implications of the results for theoretical approaches to understanding the impact of pornography receives discussion, as do the limitations of such findings.

• Bauserman, R. (1996). Sexual aggression and pornography: A review of correlation research. Basic and Applied Social Psychology. 18 (4), 405-427.

  Ongoing concern about effects of sexually explicit materials includes the role of such material in sex offenses. Issues include sex offenders' experiences with pornography and the link between pornography and sex crime rates. Review of the literature shows that sex offenders typically do not have earlier or more unusual exposure to pornography in childhood or adolescence, compared to nonoffenders. However, a minority of offenders report current use of pornography in their offenses. Rape rates are not consistently associated with pornography circulation, and the relationships found are ambiguous. Findings are consistent with a social learning view of pornography, but not with the view that sexually explicit materials in general contribute directly to sex crimes. The effort to reduce sex offenses should focus on types of experiences and backgrounds applicable to a larger number of offenders.

• Bensimon, Philipe (2007). The Role of Pornography in Sexual Offending. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 14, 95-117.

  This paper provides a review of the literature pertinent to the link between exposure to pornography and sexual offences. Research concerning the use of pornography as a precursor to sexual offending has yielded mixed results. Inconsistent findings can be attributed to differing research methodologies, including sampling strategies, measures, and genre(s) of pornography included. While the debate rages on regarding the potentially damaging effects of pornography, there is a consensus on one point: the availability and consumption of pornography does nothing to mitigate the likelihood that consumers will sexually offend. Very little research has been devoted to examining the impact of pornography consumption on incarcerated.

• Manning, Jill (2006). The Impact of Internet Pornography on Marriage and the Family: A Review of the Research. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity. 13 (2-3), 131-165.

  Since the advent of the Internet, the sex industry has profited from an unprecedented proximity to the home environment. Consequently, couples, families, and individuals of all ages are being impacted by pornography in new ways. Examining the systemic impact of Internet pornography, however, is relatively uncharted territory and the body of systemically-focused research is limited. A review of the research that does exist was undertaken and many negative trends were revealed. While much remains unknown about the impact of Internet pornography on marriages and families, the available data provide an informed starting point for policy makers, educators, clinicians, and researchers.

• Russell, Diana (1988). Pornography and Rape: A Causal Model. Political Psychology. 9, 41-73.

  The author theorizes that pornography predisposes some men to want to rape women or intensifies the predisposition in other men already so predisposed. It is further hypothesized that pornography undermines some men's internal and social inhibitions against acting out their rape desires. In discussing men's propensity to rape and sexually abused children, the author cites a study of male college students at universities in the United States and Canada which found that 25 to 30 percent reported the likelihood they would rape a woman if they could get away with it. A number of studies are presented and discussed to substantiate the author's theory that pornography causes rape and other sexual assault, and suggestions are made for further research.